Mulching for microclimate modifications in farming–An overview
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.59797/ija.v63i3.5642Keywords:
Microclimate, Mulching, Soil hydrothermal regimesAbstract
Mulch kept on or applied to the soil modifies crop microclimate above and within the soil as well as above and within the mulch. Residue retention, mulch application and/or live mulch planting are few methods followed by farmers throughout the world. These mulches modify crop microclimatic aspects, viz. solar radiation, reflection and absorption, shading, thermal radiation, temperature, humidity, wind/ air movement, evaporation (crop and soil), soil moisture (surface and within) and crop composition, structure and growth. They have marked effects on the soil–residue–atmosphere interfaces, depending on the characteristics of the residues, soil moisture and temperature alterations simultaneously, and modifications in the plant physiological functions due to environmental conditions created by mulches.
References
Adams, J.E. 1965. Effect of mulches on soil temperature and grain sorghum development. Agronomy Journal 57: 471–474.
Adams, J.E. 1967. Effect of mulches and bed configuration. II. Soil temperature and emergence of grain sorghum and corn. Agronomy Journal 59: 595–599.
Adams, J.E. 1970. Effect of mulches and bed configuration. II. Soil temperature and growth and yield responses of grain sorghum and corn. Agronomy Journal 62: 785–790.
Al-Karaghouli, A., Al-Kayssi, A.W. and Hasson, A.M. 1990. The photometric properties of different coloured plastic mulches used for soil solarization. Solar Wind Technology 7: 119–123
Awal, M.A. and Ikeda, T. 2002. Effects of changes in soil temperature on seedling emergence and phenological development in field-grown stands of peanut (Arachis hypogaea). Environmental and Experimental Botany 47: 101–113.
Awal, M.A. and Sultana, F. 2011. Microclimatic alteration and productivity of mustard crop as induced by indigenous mulches. International Journal of Agricultural Research 6: 819–829.
Baldy, C. and Stigter, C.J. 1997. Agrometeorology of Multiple Cropping in Warm Climates. Translated from the French edition (INRA, 1993), with an epilogue for the English edition. Science Publ. Inc., Enfield, USA and Oxford & IBH Publishing Company, New Delhi, India and INRA, Paris, France, p. 237.
Biederman, L.A. and Whisenant, S.W. 2009. Organic amendments direct grass population dynamics in a landfill prairie restoration. Ecological Engineering 35: 678–686.
Blanco-Canqui, H. and Lal, R. 2009. Crop residue removal impacts on soil productivity and environmental quality. Critical Reviews in Plant Science 28: 139–163.
Bristow, K.L., Campbell, G.S., Papendick, R.I. and Elliott, L.F. 1986. Simulation of heat and moisture transfer through a surface residue-soil system. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 36: 193–214.
Bristow, K.L. and Abrecht, D.G. 1989. The physical environment of 2 semi-arid tropical soils with partial surface mulch cover. Australian Journal of Soil Research 27: 577–587.
Bristow, K.L., Campbell, G.S., Papendick, R.I. and Elliott, L. 1986. Simulation of heat and moisture transfer through a surface residue-soil system. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 36: 193–214.
Bussière, F. and Cellier, P. 1994. Modification of the soil temperature and water content regimes by a crop residue mulch: experiment and modeling. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 68(1–2): 1–28.
Chambers, J.C. 2000. Seed movements and seedling fates in disturbed sage–brush steppe ecosystems: implications for restoration. Ecological Applications 10: 1,400–1,413.
Chen, S.Y., Zhang, X.Y., Pei, D., Sun, H.Y. and Chen, S.L. 2007. Effects of straw mulching on soil temperature, evaporation and yield of winter wheat: field experiments on the North China Plain. Annals of Applied Biology 150: 261–268.
Chung, S.O. and Horton, R. 1987. Soil heat and water flow with a partial surface mulch. Water Resources Research 23: 2,175–2,186.
Coiffait-Gombault, C., Buisson, E. and Dutoit, T. 2010. Hay transfer promotes establishment of Mediterranean steppe vegetation on soil disturbed by pipeline construction. Restoration Ecology 19: 214–222.
Davies, J.W. 1975. Mulching effects on plant climate and yield. Technical Note No. 136. WMO No. 388, Geneva.
Dayal, D., Naik, P.R. and Dongre, B.N. 1991. Effect of mulching on soil temperature and groundnut yield during rabi summer season. Groundnut News 3: 4.
Desserud, P.A. and Naeth, M.A. 2011. Promising results restoring grassland disturbances with native hay (Alberta). Ecological Restoration 29: 215–219.
Desserud, P.A. and Naeth, M.A. 2013. Establishment of a native bunch grass and an invasive perennial on disturbed land using straw-amended soil. Journal of Environmental Management 114: 540–547.
Dionne, J., Dube, P., Laganiere, M. and Desjardins, Y. 1999. Golf green soil and crown-level temperatures under winter protective covers. Agronomy Journal 91: 227–233.
Donath, T., Bissels, S., Hölzel, N. and Otte, A. 2007. Large scale application of diaspore transfer with plant material in restoration practice–impact of seed and microsite limitation. Biological Conservation 138: 224–234.
Döring, T., Heimbach, U., Thieme, T., Finckh, M. and Saucke, H. 2006. Aspects of straw mulching in organic potatoes. I. Effects on microclimate, Phytophthora infestans and Rhizoctonia solani. Nachrichtenbl. Deut. Pflanzenschutzd 58(3): 73–78.
Dumanski, J., Desjardins, R.L., Lal, R., De Freitos, P.L., Gerber, P., Steinfeld, H., Verchot, L., Schuman, G.F., Derner, J.D. and Rosegrant, M. 2010. Strategies and economics for greenhouse gas mitigation in agriculture. Chapter IV. 15 (In) Applied Agrometeorology. Stigter, K. (Ed.). Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg etc, pp. 983–988.
Eckstein, R.L. and Donath, T.W. 2005. Interactions between litter and water availability affect seedling emergence in four family pairs of floodplain species. Journal of Ecology 93: 807–816.
Facelli, J.M. and Pickett, S.T.A. 1991. Plant litter: its dynamics and effects on plant community structure. Botanical Reviews 57: 1–32.
Fehmi, J.S. and Kong, T.M. 2012. Effects of soil type, rainfall, straw mulch, and fertilizer on semi-arid vegetation establishment, growth and diversity. Ecological Engineering 44: 70–77.
Fenner, M. and Thompson, K. 2005. The Ecology of Seeds. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Feyen, J. and Verhulst, N. 2007. Modelling soil water and temperature dynamics in mulched soil. Journal of Hydrology 346: 64–77.
Fry, S.C. 1986. Cross-linking of matrix polymers in the growing cell walls of angiosperms. Annual Review of Plant Physiology 37: 165–186.
García-González, I., Mirás-Avalos, J.M. and López, M.V. 2010. Grapevine yield and leaf macronutrient composition in response to three different soil management systems. European Journal of Agronomy 33: 277–284.
Girma, K., Riley, H., Worku, W. and Teal, R.K. 2009. Soil moisture and sorghum response to mulch and N fertilization in semi-arid Ethiopia. Soil and Tillage Research 104: 310–315.
Goering, D.K. and Rasmussen, P.E. 1973. Changes in organic matter, extractable nutrients, and pH of a sandy loam soil related to cropping and tillage systems. Agronomy Journal 65: 735–740.
Goffinet, M.C. and Celano, G. 2004. Sorghum yield and nitrogen and water use efficiency under conventional and no-tillage systems in the Guinea savannah zone of Burkina Faso. European Journal of Agronomy 20: 183–194.
Gupta, R.K., Saikia, S.K., Prasad, R., Rajput, M., Singh, M., Agrawal, R.K., Thapa, S. and Singh, S.K. 2010. Impacts of conservation agriculture on soil aggregation and aggregate-associated carbon in a Mollisol after 10 years of cropping in Central India. Soil and Tillage Research 110: 245–251.
Gupta, S.C. 1992. Conservation Tillage Systems. Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi.
Hargrove, W.L. 1990. Soil water depletion by warm-season grasses on a sandy soil in the Texas high plains. Soil Science Society of America Journal 54: 1,265–1,270.
Harker, N. and Oster, J.D. 2000. Non-destructive soil water measurement: a review. Journal of the American Water Resources Association 36: 1,243–1,249.
Hayhoe, H.N. 1926. The mulching of field crops. Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 411, Wooster, OH, USA.
Hayhoe, H.N. and Downing, J.D. 1937. The effect of plant cover on soil temperature, soil moisture, and evaporation. Journal of Agricultural Research 55: 297–314.
Heermann, D.F. 1983. Tillage-induced soil temperature changes in the north central region. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 38: 237–239.
Hofman, G. and Verhulst, N. 2008. The effect of varying straw mulch rates on soil temperature and maize yield in a strip–tillage system. Soil and Tillage Research 98: 79–85.
Huang, M., Raghavendra, P., Chou, C., Weng, Q. and Wei, C. 2013. Effects of different colored plastic film mulches and nitrogen application rates on soil temperature, root morphology, and grain yield of winter wheat. Field Crops Research 154: 245–251.
Ickes, A. and Mendelsohn, R. 2005. The effect of mulching on vegetation in the Sudanian Savanna of Nigeria. Ecological Economics 55: 29–36.
Jin, H., Dong, J. and Zhu, Y. 2012. Changes in soil temperature and crop yield under straw mulching in northeastern China. Agricultural Water Management 104: 154–164.
Johnston, A.E., Poulton, P.R. and Coleman, K. 2009. Soil organic matter: its importance in sustainable agriculture and carbon dioxide fluxes. Advances in Agronomy 101: 1–57.
Jones, C.A. and Kiniry, J.R. 1986. CERES-Maize: A simulation model of maize growth and development. Texas A&M University Press, College Station, Texas, USA.
Katerji, N., van Hoorn, J.W. and Hamdy, A. 1990. Evaporation, transpiration, and intercrop shading effects. Agricultural Water Management 18: 1–17.
Khan, A., Jilani, M.S. and Akhtar, M. 2009. Mulching effects on soil temperature, moisture and yield of maize. Sarhad Journal of Agriculture 25: 477–481.
Kim, H. and Lee, J. 2009. Effects of water stress and mulch on soil temperature, evaporation, and crop yield in plastic greenhouses. HortScience 44: 1,015–1,020.
Kolberg, R.L., Frank, K.D. and Doran, J.W. 1997. Soil organic carbon and nitrogen in a Minnesota soil as related to tillage, residue management, and crop rotation. Soil and Tillage Research 41: 95–101.
Kubota, M., Yamaguchi, T., Abe, J. and Iwama, K. 2003. Effect of plastic film mulching on soil micro–organisms in relation to mineralization of soil nitrogen. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition 49: 1–8.
Kumar, R., Singh, R.K. and Singh, A.K. 2013. Effect of different mulch materials on soil moisture content, yield and quality of strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa Duch.). Agricultural Water Management 116: 54–60.
Lal, R. 2000. Soil management in the developing countries. Soil Science 165: 57–72.
Lal, R. 2004. Soil carbon sequestration impacts on global climate change and food security. Science 304: 1,629–1,630.
Lal, R. 2007. Global soil erosion by water and carbon dynamics. In: Pimentel, D. (Ed.) Encyclopedia of Pest Management. Taylor and Francis, New York, NY, pp. 1–5.
Lal, R. 2010. Managing soils for a warming Earth in a food-insecure and energy-starved world. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science 173: 4–15.
Lal, R. 2011. Sequestering carbon and increasing productivity by conservation tillage. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 66: 41A–46A.
Lal, R. 2014. Climate strategic soil management. In: Kimble, J.M., Follett, R.F. and Stewart, B.A. (Eds.) Management of Carbon Sequestration in Soil. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 7–29.
Lal, R. 2016. Soil health and carbon management. Food and Energy Security 5: 212–222.
Lal, R., Kimble, J.M. and Follett, R.F. 1999. Managing US cropland to sequester carbon in soil. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 54: 374–381.
Lal, R., Kimble, J.M., Follett, R.F. and Cole, C.V. 1998. The potential of U.S. cropland to sequester carbon and mitigate the greenhouse effect. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 851: 142–158.
Lal, R., Kimble, J.M., Levine, E. and Stewart, B.A. 1995. Soil management and restoration for carbon sequestration to mitigate the accelerated greenhouse effect. In: Lal, R., Kimble, J.M., Levine, E. and Stewart, B.A. (Eds.) Soils and Global Change. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 1–8.
Lal, R., Owens, L.B., Post, W.M. and Fausey, N.R. 1999. Restoration of soil organic carbon pool in croplands of the United States. Soil Science Society of America Journal 63: 1,159–1,166.
Li, Z., Feng, L., Yu, A., Xie, Y., Pan, X. and Hou, B. 2009. Effects of water stress and storage on soil nitrogen mineralization under straw mulch. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis 40: 2946–2959.
Li, Z., Li, L., Wang, L., Zhang, M., Li, X., Jin, Y., Zhou, D. and Wang, Z. 2014. Soil moisture distribution and grain yield affected by film mulching modes in the semiarid Loess Plateau of China. Field Crops Research 155: 67–75.
Li, Z., Zhang, R., Li, L., Zhou, T., Liu, H. and Zhang, J. 2013. Effects of film mulching and nitrogen application on soil temperature, soil moisture and maize yield in the Loess Plateau of China. Agricultural Water Management 123: 71–78.
Liu, J., Yang, H. and Yang, J. 2010. Effects of straw mulch on soil water and yield of maize in the Loess Plateau of China. Agricultural Water Management 97: 1,973–1,981.
López-Bellido, L., López-Bellido, R.J. and Redondo, R. 2005. Nitrogen efficiency in wheat under rainfed Mediterranean conditions as affected by split nitrogen applications. Field Crops Research 94: 86–97.
López-Bellido, L., Muñoz-Romero, V. and López-Bellido, R.J. 2011. Durum wheat quality under Mediterranean conditions as affected by N rate, timing and splitting, and N type. Field Crops Research 124: 417–423.
López-Bellido, R.J., Fuentes, M., Castillo, J.E. and López-Bellido, L. 1998. Wheat response to nitrogen fertilization in a Mediterranean climate. European Journal of Agronomy 8: 239–248.
López-Bellido, R.J., López-Bellido, L., Redondo, R. and Benítez, J. 2005. Durum wheat quality under Mediterranean conditions as affected by N fertilization and soil tillage. European Journal of Agronomy 23: 265–278.
López-Bellido, R.J., López-Bellido, L. and Redondo, R. 2006. Nitrogen efficiency in durum wheat under rainfed Mediterranean conditions as affected by split nitrogen application. Field Crops Research 96: 155–163.
López-Bellido, R.J., López-Bellido, L. and Redondo, R. 2007. Nitrogen efficiency in wheat under rainfed Mediterranean conditions as affected by split nitrogen application. Agronomy Journal 99: 1,260–1,268.
López-Bellido, R.J., Muñoz-Romero, V. and López-Bellido, L. 2009. Nitrogen efficiency in durum wheat under rainfed Mediterranean conditions as affected by split nitrogen application. Field Crops Research 114: 86–97.
López-Bellido, R.J., Redondo, R. and López-Bellido, L. 2004. Durum wheat quality under Mediterranean conditions as affected by N fertilization and soil tillage. European Journal of Agronomy 21: 117–127.
López-Bellido, R.J., Redondo, R., Muñoz-Romero, V. and López-Bellido, L. 2011. Nitrogen efficiency in durum wheat under rainfed Mediterranean conditions as affected by split nitrogen application. Field Crops Research 124: 417–423.
Luna, J.M., Martín, L., Martínez, J., Ramos, C. and Rincón, L. 2011. Tomato yield and irrigation water use efficiency under different irrigation regimes. Agricultural Water Management 98: 1,435–1,444.
Mahmood, T., Ali, A. and Awan, M.S. 2008. Mulching effects on soil temperature, moisture and yield of maize. Sarhad Journal of Agriculture 24: 65–70.
Majumdar, K. and Mandal, B. 2009. Nitrogen management in soybean–wheat cropping system of vertisol using 15N technique. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science 57: 399–402.
Mandal, K.G., Hati, K.M., Misra, A.K. and Ghosh, P.K. 2004. Effect of irrigation and nutrient management on root growth, yield, water and nutrient use efficiencies of soybean in vertisols of Central India. Agricultural Water Management 69: 223–238.
Mandal, K.G., Misra, A.K., Hati, K.M. and Bandyopadhyay, K.K. 2003. Effect of irrigation and nutrient management on root growth, yield, and water and nutrient use efficiencies of soybean in vertisols of Central India. Agricultural Water Management 59: 57–72.
Mandal, K.G., Singh, G., Misra, A.K. and Hati, K.M. 2007. Methane and nitrous oxide emissions from an irrigated soybean–wheat rotation as influenced by tillage, residue, and fertilizer. Soil and Tillage Research 94: 207–217.
Mandal, K.G., Singh, G., Misra, A.K. and Hati, K.M. 2009. Global warming potential of irrigated soybean–wheat rotation under conventional and conservation tillage systems in a Vertisol of Central India. Soil and Tillage Research 103: 166–173.
Mandal, K.G., Vinod Kumar, K., Misra, A.K., Ghosh, P.K. and Hati, K.M. 2008. Global warming potential of a soybean–wheat system as influenced by tillage, residue, and nutrient management in a Vertisol of Central India. Soil and Tillage Research 99: 130–139.
Mandujano-González, V., Jasso-Cantú, D., Sánchez-Díaz, P. and Castillo-González, A.M. 2012. Nutrient content in compost and growth of baby spinach (Spinacia oleracea) in response to organic amendments. Terra Latinoamericana 30: 29–40.
Mannering, J.V. 1941. Effect of different mulches on temperature, moisture and yield of tomatoes. Proceedings of the American Society for Horticultural Science 38: 488–494.
Mannering, J.V. 1942. Effects of various mulches on temperature, moisture, and yields of corn. Proceedings of the American Society for Horticultural Science 40: 488–494.
Manna, M.C., Mandal, K.G., Misra, A.K., Hati, K.M., Ghosh, P.K. and Bandyopadhyay, K.K. 2005. Effect of inorganic fertilizer and farmyard manure on soil physical properties, root distribution, and water-use efficiency of soybean in vertisols of central India. Bioresource Technology 96: 5–14.
Manna, M.C., Swarup, A., Wanjari, R.H., Ravankar, H.N., Mishra, B., Saha, M.N. and Singh, Y.V. 2007. Long-term effect of fertilizer and manure application on soil organic carbon storage, soil quality and yield sustainability under sub-humid and semi-arid tropical India. Field Crops Research 102: 285–296.
Martín, F., López-Bellido, L. and López-Bellido, R.J. 2002. Nitrogen utilization efficiency in durum wheat grown under rainfed Mediterranean conditions as affected by split nitrogen application. Agronomy Journal 94: 1,213–1,219.
Mayer, L.M. 1994. Relationships between mineral surfaces and organic carbon concentrations in soils and sediments. Chemical Geology 114: 347–363.
McCarty, G.W., Reeves III, J.B., Reeves, V.B. and Follett, R.F. 2002. Comparing corn and soybean yields in conventional tillage and no-tillage systems in South Dakota. Agronomy Journal 94: 1,260–1,266.
McDowell, R.W., Houlbrooke, D.J., Cameron, K.C. and Davies-Colley, R.J. 2007. Surface mulch effects on overland flow and sediment transport in a hillslope vineyard. Australian Journal of Soil Research 45: 29–35.
Miguel, A., Paulo, M., de Oliveira, A. and Vasconcelos, E. 2012. Impact of soil water tension and crop canopy on soil temperature under drip irrigated maize in a Mediterranean environment. Biosystems Engineering 111: 243–249.
Misra, A.K., Mandal, K.G., Hati, K.M. and Ghosh, P.K. 2004. Long-term effect of fertilizer and manure application on carbon storage in soil and crop yields under continuous cropping system in tropical Alfisols and Ultisols. Soil and Tillage Research 78: 1–11.
Misra, A.K., Mandal, K.G., Singh, P., Chakraborty, D. and Hati, K.M. 2008. Soil aggregation, and organic carbon and nitrogen in a reclaimed sodic soil as influenced by gypsum and farmyard manure in rice–wheat system. Land Degradation & Development 19: 166–174.
Mousavi, S.R. and Eskandari, H. 2011. Modeling soil temperature and thermal time constant using adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system. Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering 137: 169–178.
Nair, P.K.R. 1984. Soil Productivity Aspects of Agroforestry. In: Ford-Robertson, F.C., King, K.F.S. and Polglase, P.J. (Eds.) The Future of Agroforestry. Australian National University, Canberra, pp. 101–128.
Nakamoto, T., Hino, T., Hayashi, K. and Yaginuma, K. 2010. Measurement of soil temperature and matric potential for plastic mulched soils using ultra small multi-point temperature sensors. Acta Horticulturae 883: 1,087–1,092.
Neyroud, J.A. and Lefèvre, C. 1996. Stimulation of nitrogen release from soil organic matter by additions of some elements of plant origin. Biology and Fertility of Soils 22: 140–144.
Oenema, O., Postma, R., van Bodengraven, F.J. and de Willigen, P. 1992. Nitrogen mineralization from plant-residues. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 24: 585–594.
Ogawa, S., Yone, Y. and Echigo, M. 1987. Effects of direct mulching on soil temperature and crop growth. Japanese Journal of Crop Science 56: 33–38.
O'Halloran, I.P., Smith, E.G., Grossl, P.R., Schmidt, M.E. and Dodd, J.L. 2007. Influence of fumigants and plastic mulches on soil temperature, pre-plant soil nutrients, and strawberry yields in annual plasticulture. HortScience 42: 304–310.
Pandey, C.B., Singh, R.K., Tiwari, K.N. and Singh, M.P. 2006. Long-term effect of integrated nutrient management on soil properties and crop yields under a pearl millet–wheat cropping system in western Uttar Pradesh, India. Soil Use and Management 22: 386–392.
Park, S.H., Seo, S.G., Kim, S.S. and Park, J.Y. 2012. Effect of tillage and mulch on soil temperature, moisture, and tomato yield in upland field in autumn. Korean Journal of Soil Science and Fertilizer 45: 497–504.
Pask, A.J.D. and Reynolds, M.P. 2000. Breeding for yield potential: how well are we doing? CIMMYT, Mexico.
Pathak, H., Prasad, R., Verma, M.R., Das, D.K. and Saha, R. 2006. Conservation tillage in maize–wheat cropping system of the Indo-Gangetic plains: residue production, soil physical properties and crop yields. Soil and Tillage Research 89: 1–13.
Piao, S., Ciais, P., Friedlingstein, P., Peylin, P., Reichstein, M., Luyssaert, S., Margolis, H., Fang, J., Barr, A. and Chen, A. 2008. Net carbon dioxide losses of northern ecosystems in response to autumn warming. Nature 451: 49–52.
Porter, J.R. and Gawith, M. 1999. Temperatures and the growth and development of wheat: a review. European Journal of Agronomy 10: 23–36.
Power, J.F., Doran, J.W., Tisdall, J.M. and O'Donnell, T.M. 1989. Distribution and quantity of C, N, and P in aggregates from three soils under conventional and no-tillage. Soil Science Society of America Journal 53: 800–805.
Ranells, N.N. and Wagger, M.G. 1997. Nitrogen release from grass and legume cover crop monocultures and bicultures. Agronomy Journal 89: 59–66.
Rao, S.C. and Northup, B.K. 2009. Soil carbon dynamics in response to crop rotation and cultural practices in Texas. Soil Science Society of America Journal 73: 961–971.
Ray, S.S., Kanta, B. and Singh, G. 2008. Residual impact of tillage and residue management on soil physical properties and growth and yield of rice and wheat under rice-wheat system in Indo-Gangetic plains of India. Soil and Tillage Research 99: 232–244.
Renu, Agrawal, M., Bose, A. and Patel, J.J. 2011. Nitrogen management in durum wheat in North Gujarat, India. American-Eurasian Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Science 11: 848–855.
Reyes-García, C., Carranza, E., de Los Santos-Posadas, H.M., Morales-Díaz, A., Balagurusamy, N. and Govaerts, B. 2012. No-tillage and crop rotation effects on soil carbon and nitrogen in the central highlands of Mexico. Soil and Tillage Research 123: 23–30.
Rochester, I.J., Peoples, M.B., Hulugalle, N.R., Gault, R.R. and Constable, G.A. 1998. Using legumes to enhance nitrogen fertility and improve soil condition in cotton cropping systems. Field Crops Research 56: 267–277.
Rochester, I.J., Peoples, M.B., Hulugalle, N.R. and Gault, R.R. 1999. Using legumes to enhance nitrogen fertility and improve soil condition in organic farming systems. Field Crops Research 62: 279–291.
Rocha, H.R. and Rao, T.V.R. 1996. Surface application of residues and water effects on soil physical properties under no-tillage. Soil Science Society of America Journal 60: 1,131–1,136.
Sainju, U.M., Singh, B.P., Singh, B.P. and Reddy, K.C. 2006. Long-term effects of tillage, cover crops, and nitrogen fertilization on organic carbon and nitrogen concentrations in sandy loam soils in Georgia, USA. Soil and Tillage Research 87: 180–192.
Sainju, U.M., Singh, B.P. and Whitehead, W.F. 2002. Soil organic carbon and nitrogen as affected by cropping systems and nitrogen fertilization in a Vertisol. Soil and Tillage Research 68: 133–141.
Sainju, U.M., Singh, B.P., Whitehead, W.F. and Wang, S. 2003. Carbon dioxide emissions as affected by tillage and irrigation in wheat–fallow system in eastern Colorado. Soil and Tillage Research 70: 115–125.
Sainju, U.M., Singh, B.P., Whitehead, W.F., Wang, S. and Tillman, P.G. 2005. Soil carbon dioxide emission, carbon content, and bulk density as influenced by irrigation, tillage, cropping system, and nitrogen fertilization. Journal of Environmental Quality 34: 802–808.
Sainju, U.M., Singh, B.P., Whitehead, W.F., Wang, S. and Sills, D. 2007. Cover cropping effects on nitrogen fertility and carbon dioxide emissions in soils subjected to different tillage and cropping systems. Environmental Management 39: 354–364.
Sainju, U.M., Singh, B.P., Whitehead, W.F. and Wang, S. 2006. Post-harvest soil carbon dioxide fluxes and carbon content as affected by tillage, crop residue, and nitrogen fertilization. Journal of Environmental Quality 35: 1,988–1,994.
Sainju, U.M., Singh, B.P., Whitehead, W.F. and Wang, S. 2007. Carbon supply and storage in tilled and nontilled soils as influenced by cover crops and nitrogen fertilization. Journal of Environmental Quality 36: 1,667–1,675.
Sanchez, P.A. and Logan, T.J. 1992. Myths and science about the chemistry and fertility of soils in the tropics. In: Lal, R. and Sanchez, P.A. (Eds.) Myths and Science of Soils of the Tropics. Soil Science Society of America Special Publication, Madison, WI, pp. 35–46.
Sanchez, P.A., Shepherd, K.D., Soule, M.J., Place, F.M., Buresh, R.J., Izac, A.M., Mokwunye, A.U., Kwesiga, F.R. and Ndiritu, C.G. 1997. Soil fertility replenishment in Africa: an investment in natural resource capital. In: Buresh, R.J., Sanchez, P.A. and Calhoun, F. (Eds.) Replenishing Soil Fertility in Africa. Soil Science Society of America Special Publication, Madison, WI, pp. 1–46.
Sanchez-Maranon, M., Moreno, F. and Murillo, J.M. 2005. The effect of water deficit and nitrogen supply on photosynthesis and water use efficiency in six wheat genotypes of different origins. Annals of Applied Biology 146: 53–63.
Santos, F.L.M., Marchão, R.L., Binotti, F.F.S., Silva, C.A. and Villanueva, F.C.A. 2008. Effect of irrigation and nitrogen fertilization on nitrogen use efficiency in maize cultivars. Ciência Rural 38: 1,865–1,871.
Santos, F.L.M., Rodrigues, C.A.G., Binotti, F.F.S. and Silva, C.A. 2009. Nitrogen use efficiency in maize cultivars under different soil water tensions and nitrogen fertilization. Revista Brasileira de Engenharia Agrícola e Ambiental 13: 799–805.
Santos, P.M., Fonseca, I.P., Macedo, M.O., Zonta, E., Mafra, Á.L., Tornquist, C.G. and Gianello, C. 2010. Fertilizer nitrogen efficiency in Italian ryegrass and pearl millet. Revista Brasileira de Ciência do Solo 34: 847–857.
Sarkar, M., Lal, R. and Bristow, K.L. 2007. Estimating soil water retention characteristics from soil survey data. Soil Science Society of America Journal 71: 1,591–1,598.
Schmidt, M.W.I., Skjemstad, J.O., Gehrt, E., Kögel-Knabner, I. and Powlson, D.S. 1999. Charred organic carbon in German chernozemic soils. European Journal of Soil Science 50: 351–365.
Schomberg, H.H., Endale, D.M., Jenkins, M.B., Fisher, D.S., Sistani, K.R., Cabrera, M.L. and Steiner, J.L. 2009. Management strategies for reducing nitrogen loads in surface runoff from a beef cattle feedlot. Journal of Environmental Quality 38: 1,188–1,197.
Serrano, J., Shahidian, S., Carbonell, R. and de Juan, J.A. 2007. Yield response to irrigation and nitrogen fertilization in broccoli grown under different planting spacings. Agricultural Water Management 92: 189–195.
Sharma, P.K. and Singh, S.K. 2010. Response of organic and inorganic sources of nutrient on potato (Solanum tuberosum) yield, nutrient content and soil fertility in a rainfed agro-ecosystem of northern India. Indian Journal of Agronomy 55: 150–156.
Shen, H., Yan, X., Liu, J., Zhang, Y., Zeng, G. and Hong, L. 2010. Effects of different nitrogen inputs on methane emissions and rice yield in rice–wheat cropping systems in China. Pedosphere 20: 1,043–1,050.
Shindo, H., Shimada, J., Ito, H. and Yokoi, S. 2012. Effects of film mulch on growth and yield of cucumber and soil temperature. HortTechnology 22: 486–490.
Sillanpää, M. 1982. Micronutrients and the nutrient status of soils: a global study. FAO Soils Bulletin 48, FAO, Rome.
Singh, A.K. 2008. Effect of potassium fertilization on yield and quality of strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa Duch.). Haryana Journal of Horticultural Sciences 37: 214–215.
Singh, B.P., Cowie, A.L. and Smernik, R.J. 2012. Biochar carbon stability in a clayey soil as a function of feedstock and pyrolysis temperature. Environmental Science & Technology 46: 11,771–11,778.
Singh, B.P., Hatton, B.J. and Singh, B. 2010. Cow manure addition to soil induces suppression of emissions of nitrous oxide, nitric oxide, carbon dioxide, and methane. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 42: 2,341–2,347.
Singh, J., Timsina, J. and Singh, Y. 2005. Crop yield, water and nitrogen use efficiencies in dry seeded rice as affected by irrigation and nitrogen management in rice–wheat system. Agricultural Water Management 74: 207–222.
Singh, R., Sehgal, J.L., Sharma, R.K., Gupta, R.K. and Singh, G. 2007. Evaluation of CERES-maize and CERES-wheat models for water and nitrogen fertilization under rainfed condition in Indian trans-Himalayas. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 122: 335–348.
Soleimani, A., Hajabbasi, M.A., Afyuni, M. and Charkhabi, A.H. 2009. Soil properties and wheat and safflower yields following application of manure and compost. Soil Use and Management 25: 427–434.
Soltani, A., Sinclair, T.R. and Sadeghipour, H.R. 2011. Contribution of nitrogen to wheat yield in rainfed Mediterranean environments of Iran. Field Crops Research 121: 396–404.
Sousa, D.M.G., Lobato, E. and Magalhães, P.C. 2007. Effect of irrigation, plant population and nitrogen on yield and water use efficiency of sweet maize. Irrigation Science 26: 215–220.
Springmann, M., Wiebe, K., Mason-D’Croz, D., Sulser, T.B., Rayner, M., Scarborough, P. and Godfray, H.C.J. 2018. Health and nutritional aspects of sustainable diet strategies and their association with environmental impacts: a global modelling analysis with country-level detail. The Lancet Planetary Health 2: e451–e461.
Stehfest, E., Bouwman, L., van Vuuren, D.P., den Elzen, M.G.J., Eickhout, B. and Kabat, P. 2009. Climate benefits of changing diet. Climatic Change 95: 83–102.
Sullivan, P.G. and Hatfield, J.L. 2006. Use of nitrogen balance to estimate leaching losses of nitrogen. Journal of Environmental Quality 35: 828–833.
Sun, J.H., Gu, X.L., Yu, Q., Zhang, Z.B., Wu, W.L., Liu, H., Zhang, C.L. and Liu, X.B. 2012. Effect of mulch type and mulching rate on soil temperature, soil moisture and yield of spring wheat in eastern Gansu, China. Field Crops Research 133: 92–98.
Tandon, H.L.S. 1995. Methods of Analysis of Soils, Plants, Waters, Fertilisers & Organic Manures. Fertiliser Development and Consultation Organization, New Delhi.
Tian, X., Luo, Z., Wang, G., Li, F., Zhang, H., Zhang, X., Liu, C., Guo, X., Cui, Z., Zhang, Y. and Chen, X. 2012. Effect of straw incorporation on soil organic carbon sequestration in a rice–wheat cropping system: a meta-analysis. Soil and Tillage Research 124: 121–129.
Timsina, J. and Humphreys, E. 2006. Performance of CERES-Rice and CERES-Wheat models in rice–wheat systems: a review. Agricultural Systems 90: 5–31.
Timsina, J., Singh, H., Humphreys, E. and van Bussel, L.G.J. 2010. Genetic improvement and environmental trends in Indian wheat varieties. Food and Energy Security 3: 239–250.
Toderich, K., Moiseenko, T., Belolipov, I., Chendev, Y., Sauer, T. and Gruda, N. 2013. Nitrogen balance in sandy soil under drip-fertigated tomatoes with organic and inorganic fertilization. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science 176: 570–578.
Tomar, O.S. and Minhas, P.S. 2012. Long-term effects of fertilizers and organic amendments on carbon stabilization and management index of an Alfisol. Soil and Tillage Research 121: 17–26.
Treonis, A.M., Ostle, N.J., Stott, A.W. and Primrose, R. 2004. Identification of groups of metabolically-active rhizosphere microorganisms by stable isotope probing of PLFAs. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 36: 533–537.
Tripolskaja, L., Melecis, V., Jansons, V., Pugajeva, I., Ruža, A. and Lazdins, A. 2008. Influence of different fertilizers on quality of potato tubers. Proceedings of the Latvian Academy of Sciences 62: 95–101.
Tully, K.L. and Lawrence, D. 2012. Closing the loop: nutrient balances in organic and conventional coffee agroecosystems. Environmental Management 49: 1,229–1,239.
Turmel, M.S., StArnaud, M. and Dessureault-Rompré, J. 2005. Fertilizer type, but not irrigation, affects phosphorus loss by runoff in a calcareous sandy soil. Journal of Environmental Quality 34: 1,298–1,308.
Tzilivakis, J., Warner, D.J., Green, A. and Lewis, K.A. 2005. Adapting the pesticide properties database for use in a field-scale risk assessment model. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 109: 181–200.
Uchida, Y. and Kamura, T. 2000. The estimation of greenhouse gas emissions by Korean agriculture: methane and nitrous oxide. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 57: 127–138.
Vagadia, B.H. and Patel, J.J. 2004. Response of potato (Solanum tuberosum) to planting methods, nitrogen and phosphorus levels. Indian Journal of Agronomy 49: 49–51.
Valencia-Botín, A.J., Ojeda-Barrios, D.L. and Rodríguez-González, M.T. 2009. Soil management and temperature: its effects on sunflower growth and nutrient uptake. Terra Latinoamericana 27: 321–330.
Vandenberghe, C., Govaerts, B., Gérard, B., Van Herwijnen, R. and Toussaint, B. 2009. Soil tillage effects on runoff, erosion and soil moisture content during soybean growing season in Madagascar. Soil and Tillage Research 105: 284–296.
Verhulst, N., Sayre, K.D., Moreno, F., Govaerts, B., Dendooven, L., Deckers, J. and Sayre, R.T. 2010. Effect of mulch on soil organic carbon partitioning and root distribution of irrigated potato. European Journal of Agronomy 33: 26–36.
Vermang, J., Sleutel, S., De Neve, S., Hofman, G. and Lemeur, R. 2007. Soil CO2 emissions in a winter wheat crop: effects of soil aggregate size and relationship with C and N content. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 39: 1,081–1,091.
Vian, J.F., Barrett, K., Martin, A., Vom Dorp, M., Girousse, C., P., M., Barbier, F., Péron, T., Lecomte, A., Boulard, C., Tissier, A. and Miquel, M. 2013. Oil biosynthesis in underground oil-rich storage vegetative tissue of hop (Humulus lupulus L.) trichomes. Plant Physiology 161: 1,098–1,114.
Vitousek, P.M., Menge, D.N.L., Reed, S.C. and Cleveland, C.C. 2013. Biological nitrogen fixation: rates, patterns and ecological controls in terrestrial ecosystems. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 368: 20130119.
Wagner-Riddle, C., Congreves, K.A., Abalos, D., Berg, A.A., Brown, S.E., Ambadan, J.T. and Tenuta, M. 2017. In search of sulfur: a review of recent sulfur research in soil–plant systems. Soil and Tillage Research 165: 101–110.
Walkley, A. and Black, I.A. 1934. An examination of the Degtjareff method for determining soil organic matter, and a proposed modification of the chromic acid titration method. Soil Science 37: 29–38.
Wang, H., Wu, L., Lin, Q., Xu, Y. and Liu, Q. 2010. Effects of tillage and residue management on soil microbial communities in North China. Plant and Soil 326: 511–521.
Wang, J., Cai, D., Zhu, Y., Xu, Y., Zhang, Y., Fu, Z. and Gao, H. 2012. Effects of irrigation and nitrogen application rates on nitrate nitrogen concentration in groundwater under winter wheat–summer maize cropping system. Agricultural Water Management 104: 23–32.
Wang, J., Zhan, S., Wu, Q., Yu, S., Zhou, L., Wu, Y. and Li, W. 2011. Effects of nitrogen management on methane emission and rice yield. Agricultural Sciences in China 10: 1,271–1,279.
Wang, L., Li, Y., Li, W., Wang, Y., Wang, Z. and Wu, Z. 2010. Study on the effects of different application rates of potassium fertilizer on growth and yield of summer maize. Southwest China Journal of Agricultural Sciences 23: 1,407–1,411.
Wang, Q., Wang, D., Han, L., Li, F., Zhang, X., Li, F., Xu, Y., Zhang, F. and Chen, X. 2013. Changes in soil organic carbon, nitrogen, pH and bulk density with the development of age sequence of Robinia pseudoacacia plantations on the Loess Plateau, China. Plant and Soil 364: 171–181.
Wang, W., Dalal, R.C., Moody, P.W., Smith, C.J., Parton, W.J., Tang, C., Rossiter, R. and Menzies, N.W. 2007. Carbon pools in a Vertisol after 25 annual direct drilling of wheat or barley with and without stubble retention. Soil and Tillage Research 97: 23–32.
Wang, Y., Huang, B., Zhang, H., Hu, Y., Huang, Y. and Liu, Y. 2012. Effect of manure application on soil temperature, water content, and grain yield of winter wheat on the Loess Plateau of China. Field Crops Research 135: 23–29.
Wang, Y., Wu, Y., Zhang, L., Shi, Y., Liu, S., Du, T. and Liu, C. 2012. Effect of partial root-zone irrigation on the hydraulic conductivity of root-soil interface in relation to root distribution under different soil textures. Agricultural Water Management 103: 155–161.
Wang, Y., Xu, Z., Ma, S., Huang, S., Zhang, W. and Lian, Y. 2010. Characterization of soil organic carbon fractions in a rice–wheat cropping system under long-term fertilization in China. Agricultural Sciences in China 9: 98–106.
Wang, Z., Li, J., Luo, Y., Li, L. and Chen, F. 2006. Crop growth and soil water content under different amounts of straw mulch in the Loess Plateau of China. Agricultural Water Management 84: 9–16.
Wei, C.F., Kuzyakov, Y., Li, S.X., Zhang, Q.F., Cao, G.M., Gao, J.S., Ma, Y.C. and Li, F.M. 2010. Nitrous oxide emissions from cropland: a national-scale inventory for China using a process-based model. Atmospheric Environment 44: 3,159–3,166.
Wei, W., Liu, C., Zhao, Z., Shi, Y. and Hu, Z. 2012. Effect of straw returning methods on the distribution and leaching of organic carbon and nitrogen in a paddy soil of subtropical China. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 156: 169–175.
Whitehead, D.C. 1995. Nutrient Elements in Grassland: Soil–Plant–Animal Relationships. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.
Whitehead, D.C. 2000. The distribution and transformations of nitrogen in grassland soils. In: Summer, M.E. (Ed.) Handbook of Soil Science. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. B221–B245.
Whittingham, W.R., Reid, M., Vincent, K., Tongway, D., Sparrow, A.D. and Friedel, M.H. 1999. Patch dynamics of perennial shrubs in a semi-arid rangeland: a long-term study using remotely sensed imagery. Landscape Ecology 14: 363–376.
Wick, A.F., Stahl, P.D., Ingram, L.J., Reeves III, J.B. and Vesbach, K.A. 2007. Impact of biochar amendment on fertility of a southeastern Coastal Plain soil. Soil Science 172: 777–787.
Wu, L., Wang, H., Huang, W., Wu, H., Chen, Y., Yang, Y., Zhang, Z. and Lin, Q. 2011. Effects of tillage and residue management on soil microbial communities in North China. Plant and Soil 340: 85–99.
Wu, L., Wen, Z., Hu, Y., Lu, W. and Lu, J. 2011. Carbon and nitrogen dynamics in the root rhizosphere soil in response to irrigation management in a wheat-maize rotation system. Soil and Tillage Research 117: 50–57.
Wu, S.C., Cao, Z.H., Li, Z.G., Cheung, K.C., Wong, M.H. and Kadambot, H.M.S. 2005. Effect of biofertilizer containing N-fixer, P and K solubilizers and AM fungi on maize growth: a greenhouse trial. Geoderma 125: 155–166.
Wu, S.C., Wong, M.H. and Cheung, K.C. 2006. Effects of inoculation of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria on metal uptake by Brassica juncea. Environmental Pollution 140: 124–135.
Xu, X., Liu, W., Wu, W., Zhang, Y., Li, L. and Zhang, W. 2010. Effects of different fertilization regimes on the diversity of an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal community in the rhizosphere of a maize cultivar. Biology and Fertility of Soils 46: 303–308.
Yadav, R.L., Dwivedi, B.S., Pandey, P.S., Shurpali, N.J. and Poonia, S.P. 2000. Wheat straw management in rice–wheat cropping system of Indo-Gangetic Plains of India: effects on soil physical properties. Soil and Tillage Research 56: 1–13.
Yang, L., Ren, S., Sun, J. and Liu, D. 2011. Effect of irrigation method and tillage on cotton root growth and water use efficiency in North China. Agricultural Water Management 98: 1,367–1,371.
Yang, L., Zhang, L., Ren, S. and Liu, D. 2007. Soil moisture distribution in cotton field under different drip irrigation frequencies. Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering 133: 381–386.
Yang, X., Fang, X., Liu, S. and Tang, C. 2012. Soil moisture distribution and utilization efficiency of winter wheat under different irrigation treatments in the piedmont of the Taihang Mountains. Agricultural Water Management 113: 8–14.
Yang, Y., Zhang, Z., Wang, H., Wu, L., Lin, Q., Chen, Y., Yang, Y. and Li, X. 2011. The influence of different long-term cropping systems on soil microbial community structure in a subtropical paddy soil. Journal of Soils and Sediments 11: 1,001–1,010.
Yang, Y.M., Zhang, F.S., Li, L.F., Jiang, R.F. and Li, X.L. 2005. Phosphorus nutrition of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) in relation to mycorrhizal colonization and phosphate solubilizing activity of rhizosphere microorganisms under field conditions. Acta Ecologica Sinica 25: 2,399–2,403.
Yang, Z., Yang, L., Hu, C., Li, G., Wang, P. and Dong, C. 2010. Carbon sequestration efficiency in the Loess Plateau soils under different land uses. Journal of Arid Environments 74: 98–102.
Yin, H., Li, Y., Xiao, J., Xu, Z. and Cheng, X. 2012. Yield response of summer maize to conservation tillage on the Loess Plateau of China. Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment 10: 874–878.
Yu, Y., Luo, Y., Zhu, J., Zhou, G., Xia, Y., Wang, H. and Li, D. 2010. Increased topsoil carbon stock across China’s forests. Global Change Biology 16: 2686–2697.
Yuan, J., Wang, Q., Zhang, H., Li, H., Liu, S., Yi, L., Liu, G., Jiang, H. and Li, X. 2011. Effects of soil conservation practices on soil water balance and crop yield. Agricultural Water Management 98: 1,199–1,206.
Zhang, F., Huo, X., Cui, X., Zhang, W., Xu, Y., Ding, R. and Li, Z. 2010. Response of rice yields and soil organic carbon sequestration to straw return in China. Soil Use and Management 26: 164–173.
Zhang, J., Dang, T.H., Ma, X., Zhong, Z., Qin, J., Wu, Z., Yang, L. and Yin, Y. 2013. Responses of wheat and cotton to irrigation and nitrogen fertilization in North China Plain: field and modeling study. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 12: 227–238.
Zhang, Q., Zhang, C., Liu, Z., Gu, X., Jiang, Y., Zou, Y. and Shen, Q. 2011. A new bioorganic fertilizer can effectively control banana wilt by strong colonization with Bacillus subtilis N11. Plant and Soil 344: 87–97.
Zhang, W., Dou, Z., He, P., Ju, X., Powlson, D., Chadwick, D., Norse, D., Lu, Y., Zhang, Y., Wu, L. and Chen, X. 2013. New technologies reduce greenhouse gas emissions from nitrogenous fertilizer in China. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 110: 8,465–8,470.
Zhang, W., Dou, Z., He, P., Ju, X., Powlson, D., Chadwick, D., Norse, D., Lu, Y., Zhang, Y., Wu, L. and Chen, X. 2013. New technologies reduce greenhouse gas emissions from nitrogenous fertilizer in China. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 110: 8,465–8,470.
Zhang, W., He, X., Liu, G., Han, X., Wang, Y., Yang, Y., Feng, Q., Ren, Z. and Yu, Y. 2008. Crop yield, soil fertility and financial performance after 12 years of organic and inorganic fertilization in the North China Plain. Field Crops Research 108: 230–237.
Zhang, W., Römheld, V., Marschner, H. and Cakmak, I. 1995. Extracellular phytase activity of zinc-efficient and zinc-inefficient wheat and barley genotypes. Plant and Soil 173: 215–221.
Zhang, W., Wang, J., Li, Z., Yu, H., Yue, J., Yang, X. and Feng, L. 2012. Impacts of elevated ozone on yield of four Chinese wheat cultivars grown in field chambers under fully open-air field conditions. Atmospheric Environment 50: 339–347.
Zhao, B., Tao, J., Ren, Z., Liu, Z., Wang, X., Zhang, J. and Tang, H. 2010. Emission factors and spatial patterns of soil nitrogen oxides for motor vehicles in China. Atmospheric Environment 44: 3,531–3,537.
Zhao, L., Sun, H., Wu, P., Ren, X., Zhang, Z. and Han, X. 2010. Seasonal changes of soil labile organic carbon pools within a fertilization chronosequence of upland crops in a red soil region of Southern China. Journal of Soils and Sediments 10: 802–810.
Zhao, W., Wang, Z., Yang, J., Wang, X. and Zhang, Y. 2011. Comparative studies on decomposition and nutrient release of maize and wheat straw mixed with different proportions of soybean straw. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 89: 1–10.
Zhao, X., Zhou, X., Zhang, Y., Lei, X., Zhao, Z. and Zhu, L. 2007. Modelling the spatial variability of soil moisture at the field scale and its applications. Chinese Geographical Science 17: 70–76.
Zhao, Y., Ma, Y., Qi, J., Jiang, D., Zhu, Y. and Liu, L. 2013. Effects of organic manure application with chemical fertilizers on enzyme activities in rain-fed maize fields on the Loess Plateau of China. European Journal of Soil Biology 54: 45–51.
Zheng, Y., Li, W., Jiang, G. and Wang, J. 2009. Distribution and properties of soil carbon fractions in reed wetland in the Yellow River Delta. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology 20: 2,479–2,486.
Zhong, L., Yang, X., Liu, J., Huang, G., Lv, W. and Zhang, Y. 2013. Contrasting effects of straw and straw-derived biochar amendments on greenhouse gas emissions within double rice cropping systems. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 173: 13–22.
Zhou, G., Lin, S., Freeman, C., Zhang, Z., Zhu, J., Ma, X., Du, G., Liu, Y., Zhang, D. and Ye, J. 2006. Old-growth forests can accumulate carbon in soils. Science 314: 1,416–1,417.
Zhou, L., Li, Z., Liu, G., Cui, S., Zhang, H., Shen, J. and Liu, Z. 2011. Agricultural irrigation mediates climatic and environmental impacts on methane emissions from a degraded fen peatland in the Sanjiang Plain. Agricultural Water Management 98: 1,646–1,653.
Zhou, S., Yu, Y., Xiao, M., Deng, S., Peng, L., Ma, X., Chen, F., Li, S., Liu, X., Cao, G., Feng, H. and Jiang, G. 2011. Impact of elevated CO2 concentration on soil microbial community in a rice paddy. Science of the Total Environment 409: 4,291–4,297.
Zhu, Y., Yu, J., Wang, H., Wang, W., Wu, Z., Han, C., Peng, X., Mao, Z. and Zhang, Y. 2012. Modelling N2O emissions from a winter wheat–summer maize rotation field in the North China Plain. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 93: 309–326.
Zhu, Z., Chen, D., He, X., Ni, Y., Gao, Y., Li, Y., Yang, J., Cai, M. and Bai, M. 2010. Long-term effects of inorganic fertilizers on microbial biomass and community functional diversity in a paddy soil derived from quaternary red clay. Applied Soil Ecology 45: 64–71.
Zou, J., Huang, Y., Jiang, J., Zheng, X., Sass, R.L. and Wang, Y. 2005. A 3-year field measurement of methane and nitrous oxide emissions from rice paddies in China: effects of water regime, crop residue, and fertilizer application. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 19: GB2021.
Zou, J., Huang, Y., Zheng, X., Wang, Y., Xu, X., Mosier, A. and Wang, Y. 2009. Emissions of nitrous oxide from rice paddies in China: effects of water regime, crop residue, and fertilizer nitrogen. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 23: GB2002.
Zou, J., Huang, Y., Zheng, X., Wang, Y., Xu, X., Mosier, A. and Wang, Y. 2009. Emissions of nitrous oxide from rice paddies in China: effects of water regime, crop residue, and fertilizer nitrogen. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 23: GB2002.
Zou, J., Huang, Y., Zheng, X., Wang, Y., Xu, X., Mosier, A. and Wang, Y. 2009. Emissions of nitrous oxide from rice paddies in China: effects of water regime, crop residue, and fertilizer nitrogen. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 23: GB2002.
